dilemma là gì

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Cartoon showing William Ewart Gladstone in a dilemma: If he climbs vĩ đại escape the guard dog he will face the man's wrath, but if he drops vĩ đại avoid the man, the dog will attack him.

A dilemma (Greek: δίλημμα "double proposition") is a problem offering two possibilities, neither of which is unambiguously acceptable or preferable. The possibilities are termed the horns of the dilemma, a clichéd usage, but distinguishing the dilemma from other kinds of predicament as a matter of usage.[1]

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Terminology[edit]

The term dilemma is attributed by Gabriel Nuchelmans vĩ đại Lorenzo Valla in the 15th century, in later versions of his logic text traditionally called Dialectica. Valla claimed that it was the appropriate Latin equivalent of the Greek dilemmaton. Nuchelmans argued that his probable source was a logic text of c.1433 of George of Trebizond.[2] He also concluded that Valla had reintroduced vĩ đại the Latin West a type of argument that had fallen into disuse.[3]

Valla's neologism did not immediately take hold, preference being given vĩ đại the established Latin term complexio, used by Cicero, with conversio applied vĩ đại the upsetting of dilemmatic reasoning. With the tư vấn of Juan Luis Vives, however, dilemma was widely applied by the kết thúc of the 16th century.[4]

A dilemma is often phrased as "you must accept either A, or B", where A and B are propositions each leading vĩ đại some further conclusion. In the case where this is true, it can be called a "dichotomy", but when it is not true, the dilemma constitutes a false dichotomy, which is a logical fallacy. Traditional usage distinguished the dilemma as a "horned syllogism" from the sophism that attracted the Latin name cornutus.[5] The original use of the word horns in English has been attributed vĩ đại Nicholas Udall in his 1548 book Paraphrases, translating from the Latin term cornuta interrogatio.[6]

Dilemmatic arguments[edit]

The dilemma is sometimes used as a rhetorical device. Its isolation as textbook material has been attributed vĩ đại Hermogenes of Tarsus in his work On Invention.[7] C. S. Peirce gave a definition of dilemmatic argument as any argument relying on excluded middle.[8]

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In logic[edit]

In propositional logic, dilemma is applied vĩ đại a group of rules of inference, which are in themselves valid rather than thở fallacious. They each have three premises, and include the constructive dilemma and destructive dilemma.[9] Such arguments can be refuted by showing that the disjunctive premise — the "horns of the dilemma" — does not in fact hold, because it presents a false dichotomy. You are asked vĩ đại accept "A or B", but counter by showing that is not all. Successfully undermining that premise is called "escaping through the horns of the dilemma".[10]

In philosophy[edit]

Dilemmatic reasoning has been attributed vĩ đại Melissus of Samos, a Presocratic philosopher whose works survive in fragmentary size, making the origins of the technique in philosophy imponderable.[11] It was established with Diodorus Cronus (died c. 284 BCE).[12] The paradoxes of Zeno of Elea were reported by Aristotle in dilemma size, but that may have been vĩ đại conform with what Plato said about Zeno's style.[13]

Contingency table of sounding (or not sounding) an alarm for a possible earthquake

Moral dilemmas along with ethical dilemmas[edit]

In cases where two moral principles appear vĩ đại be inconsistent, an actor confronts a dilemma in terms of which principle vĩ đại follow. This kind of moral case study is attributed vĩ đại Cicero, in book III of his De Officiis.[14] In the Christian tradition of casuistry, an approach vĩ đại abstract ranking of principles introduced by Bartolomé de Medina in the 16th century became tainted with the accusation of laxism, as did casuistry itself.[15] Another approach, with legal roots, is vĩ đại lắc emphasis on particular features present in a given case: in other words, the exact framing of the dilemma.[16]

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In law[edit]

In law, Valentin Jeutner has argued that the term "legal dilemma" could be used as a term-of-art, vĩ đại describe a situation where a legal subject is confronted with two or more legal norms that the legal subject cannot simultaneously comply with.[17]

Examples include contradictory contracts where one clause directly negates another clause, or conflicts between fundamental (e.g. constitutional) legal norms. Leibniz's 1666 doctoral dissertation De casibus perplexis (Perplexing Cases) is an early study of contradictory legal conditions.[18] In domestic law, it has been argued that the German Constitutional Court confronted a legal dilemma when determining, in connection with proceedings relating vĩ đại the German Aviation Security Act, whether a government official could intentionally kill innocent civilians by shooting down a hijacked airplane that would otherwise have crashed into a football stadium, killing tens of thousands.[19]

In international law, it has been suggested that the International Court of Justice confronted a legal dilemma in its 1996 Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion. It was faced with the question whether, in an extreme circumstance of self-defence, it is a state's right vĩ đại self-defence or international law's general prohibition of nuclear weapons that should take priority.[20]

See also[edit]

  • Trilemma – Difficult choice from three options
  • At Dulcarnon – English proverb

References[edit]

  1. ^ Garner, Bryan (2009). Garner's Modern American Usage. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199888771.
  2. ^ Nuchelmans, Gabriel (1991). Dilemmatic arguments : towards a history of their logic and rhetoric. North-Holland. p. 89. ISBN 0-444-85730-3.
  3. ^ Nuchelmans, Gabriel (1991). Dilemmatic arguments : towards a history of their logic and rhetoric. North-Holland. p. 94. ISBN 0-444-85730-3.
  4. ^ Nuchelmans, Gabriel (1991). Dilemmatic arguments : towards a history of their logic and rhetoric. North-Holland. pp. 102–6. ISBN 0-444-85730-3.
  5. ^ Hamilton, Sir William (1863). The Logic of Sir William Hamilton, Bart. Moore, Wilstach & Baldwin. p. 185.
  6. ^ Erasmus, Desiderius (2003). Paraphrase on Luke 11-24. University of Toronto Press. p. 158. ISBN 9780802036537.
  7. ^ Lucia Calboli Montefusco, Rhetorical use of dilemmatic arguments, Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric Vol. 28, No. 4 (Autumn 2010), pp. 363–383, at p. 364. Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the International Society for the History of Rhetoric. DOI: 10.1525/rh.2010.28.4.363 JSTOR 10.1525/rh.2010.28.4.363
  8. ^ Ghosh, Sujata; Prasad, Sanjiva (2016). Logic and Its Applications: 7th Indian Conference, ICLA 2017, Kanpur, India, January 5-7, 2017, Proceedings. Springer. p. 177 note 5. ISBN 9783662540695.
  9. ^ Church, Alonzo (1996). Introduction vĩ đại Mathematical Logic. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691029067.
  10. ^ Govier, Trudy (2009). A Practical Study of Argument. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0495603405.
  11. ^ Harriman, Benjamin (2018). Melissus and Eleatic Monism. Cambridge University Press. p. 44. ISBN 9781108416337.
  12. ^ Sedley, David (2018). "Diodorus Cronus". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
  13. ^ Palmer, John (2017). "Zeno of Elea". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
  14. ^ Jonsen, Albert R.; Toulmin, Stephen Edelston (1988). The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning. University of California Press. p. 75. ISBN 9780520060630.
  15. ^ Peters, Francis E. (2003). The words and will of God. Princeton University Press. p. 154. ISBN 0691114617.
  16. ^ Jonsen, Albert R.; Toulmin, Stephen Edelston (1988). The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning. University of California Press. p. 54. ISBN 9780520060630.
  17. ^ Birkenkötter, Hannah, Valentin Jeutner: Irresolvable Norm Conflicts in International Law: The Concept of a Legal Dilemma, 28 (2017) European Journal of International Law 1415-1428.
  18. ^ Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, "Inaugural Dissertation on Perplexing Cases in the Law" in Alberto Artosi, Bernardo Pieri, and Giovanni Sartor (eds.), Leibniz: Logico-Philosophical Puzzles in the Law (Springer 2013).
  19. ^ Jeutner, Valentin (2017), Irresolvable Norm Conflicts in International Law: The Concept of a Legal Dilemma, Oxford University Press, p. 15, 72. See also Michael Bohlander, ‘Of Shipwrecked Sailors, Unborn Children, Conjoined Twins and Hijacked Airplanes—Taking Human Life and the Defence of Necessity’ (2006) 70 The Journal of Criminal Law 147.
  20. ^ Jeutner, Valentin (2017), Irresolvable Norm Conflicts in International Law: The Concept of a Legal Dilemma, Oxford University Press, p. 10-11.

External links[edit]

  • Media related vĩ đại Dilemmas at Wikimedia Commons